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However, VRC01 did not prevent where can you buy zithromax with other HIV isolates and overall HIV acquisition compared with placebo. The data provide proof of concept that bnAb can prevent HIV acquisition, although the approach is limited by viral diversity and potential selection of resistant isolates.Corey L, Gilbert PB, Juraska M, et al. Two randomized trials of neutralizing antibodies to prevent HIV-1 acquisition. N Engl J where can you buy zithromax Med.

2021;384:1003–1014.Seminal cytokine profiles are associated with the risk of HIV transmissionInvestigators analysed a panel of 34 cytokines/chemokines in blood and semen of men (predominantly men who have sex with men) with HIV, comparing 21 who transmitted HIV to their partners and 22 who did not. Overall, 47% of men had a recent HIV , 19% were where can you buy zithromax on antiretroviral therapy and 84% were viraemic. The cytokine profile in seminal fluid, but not in blood, differed significantly between transmitters and non-transmitters, with transmitters showing higher seminal concentrations of interleukin 13 (IL-13), IL-15 and IL-33, and lower concentrations of interferon‐gamma, IL-15, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), IL-17, granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF), IL-4, IL-16 and eotaxin. Although limited, the findings suggest that the seminal milieu modulates the risk of HIV transmission, providing a potential development opportunity for HIV prevention strategies.Vanpouille C, Frick A, Rawlings SA, et al.

Cytokine network where can you buy zithromax and sexual HIV transmission in men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:2655–2662.The challenge of estimating global treatment eligibility for chronic hepatitis B from incomplete datasetsWorldwide, over 250 million where can you buy zithromax people are estimated to live with chronic hepatitis B (CHB), although only ~11% is diagnosed and a minority receives antiviral therapy. An estimate of the global proportion eligible for treatment was not previously available.

A systematic review analysed studies of CHB populations done between 2007 and 2018 to estimate the prevalence of cirrhosis, abnormal alanine aminotransferase, hepatitis B zithromax DNA >2000 or >20 000 IU/mL, hepatitis B e-antigen, and overall eligibility for treatment as per WHO and other guidelines. The pooled treatment eligibility estimate was 19% (95% CI 18% to 20%), with about 10% requiring urgent treatment due to where can you buy zithromax cirrhosis. However, the estimate should be interpreted with caution due to incomplete data acquisition and reporting in available studies. Standardised reporting is needed to improve global and regional where can you buy zithromax estimates of CHB treatment eligibility and guide effective policy formulation.Tan M, Bhadoria AS, Cui F, et al.

Estimating the proportion of people with chronic hepatitis B zithromax eligible for hepatitis B antiviral treatment worldwide. A systematic where can you buy zithromax review and meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2021. 6:106–119.Broad geographical disparity in the contribution of HIV to the burden of cervical cancerThis systematic review and meta-analysis estimated the contribution of HIV to the global and regional burden of cervical cancer using data from 24 studies which included 236 127 women with HIV.

HIV markedly increased the risk of cervical where can you buy zithromax cancer (pooled relative risk 6.07. 95% CI 4.40 to 8.37). In 2018, 4.9% (95% CI 3.6% to where can you buy zithromax 6.4%) of cervical cancers were attributable to HIV globally, although the population-attributable fraction for HIV varied geographically, reaching 21% (95% CI 15.6% to 26.8%) in the African region. Cervical cancer is preventable and treatable.

Efforts are needed to expand access to HPV vaccination in sub-Saharan Africa. More immediately, there is an urgent need to integrate cervical cancer where can you buy zithromax screening within HIV services.Stelzle D, Tanaka LF, Lee KK, et al. Estimates of the global burden of cervical cancer associated with HIV. Lancet Glob Health where can you buy zithromax.

2020. 9:e161–69.The complex relationship between where can you buy zithromax serum vitamin D and persistence of high-risk human papilloma zithromax Most cervical high-risk human papilloma zithromax (hrHPV) s are transient and those that persist are more likely to progress to cancer. Based on the proposed immunomodulatory properties of vitamin D, a longitudinal study examined the association between serum concentrations of five vitamin D biomarkers and short-term persistent (vs transient or sporadic) detection of hrHPV in 72 women who collected monthly cervicovaginal swabs over 6 months. No significant associations were detected in the primary analysis.

In sensitivity analyses, after multiple adjustments, serum concentrations of multiple vitamin D biomarkers were positively associated with the short-term persistence where can you buy zithromax of 14 selected hrHPV types. The relationship between vitamin D and hrHPV warrants closer examination. Studies should have longer follow-up, include where can you buy zithromax populations with more diverse vitamin D concentrations and account for vitamin D supplementation.Troja C, Hoofnagle AN, Szpiro A, et al. Understanding the role of emerging vitamin D biomarkers on short-term persistence of high-risk HPV among mid-adult women.

J Infect Dis 2020. Online ahead of printPublished in where can you buy zithromax STI—the editor’s choice. One in five cases of with Neisseria gonorrhoeae clear spontaneouslyStudies have indicated that Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) s can resolve spontaneously without antibiotic therapy. A substudy of a randomised trial investigated where can you buy zithromax 405 untreated subjects (71% men) who underwent both pretrial and enrolment NG testing at the same anatomical site (genital, pharyngeal and rectal).

Based on nuclear acid amplification tests, 83 subjects (20.5%) showed clearance of the anatomical site within a median of 10 days (IQR 7–15) between tests. Those with spontaneous clearance were less likely to have concurrent chlamydia (p=0.029) and dysuria (p=0.035), but there were no differences in age, gender, sexual orientation, HIV status, number of previous NG episodes, and symptoms other than dysuria between those with and without clearance. Given the high rate of where can you buy zithromax spontaneous resolution, point-of-care NG testing should be considered to reduce unnecessary antibiotic treatment.Mensforth S, Ayinde OC, Ross J. Spontaneous clearance of genital and extragenital Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

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A broadly neutralising antibody to prevent HIV zithromax prices walmart transmissionTwo HIV prevention visit the site trials (HVTN 704/HPTN 085. HVTN 703/HPTN 081) enrolled 2699 at-risk cisgender men and transgender persons in the Americas and Europe and 1924 at-risk women in sub-Saharan Africa who were randomly assigned to receive the broadly neutralising antibody (bnAb) VRC01 or placebo (10 infusions at an interval of 8 weeks). Moderate-to-severe adverse events related to VRC01 zithromax prices walmart were uncommon. In a prespecified pooled analysis, over 20 months, VRC01 offered an estimated prevention efficacy of ~75% against VRC01-sensitive isolates (30% of zithromaxes circulating in the trial regions).

However, VRC01 did not prevent with other HIV zithromax prices walmart isolates and overall HIV acquisition compared with placebo. The data provide proof of concept that bnAb can prevent HIV acquisition, although the approach is limited by viral diversity and potential selection of resistant isolates.Corey L, Gilbert PB, Juraska M, et al. Two randomized trials of neutralizing antibodies to prevent HIV-1 acquisition. N Engl zithromax prices walmart J Med.

2021;384:1003–1014.Seminal cytokine profiles are associated with the risk of HIV transmissionInvestigators analysed a panel of 34 cytokines/chemokines in blood and semen of men (predominantly men who have sex with men) with HIV, comparing 21 who transmitted HIV to their partners and 22 who did not. Overall, 47% of men had a recent HIV zithromax prices walmart , 19% were on antiretroviral therapy and 84% were viraemic. The cytokine profile in seminal fluid, but not in blood, differed significantly between transmitters and non-transmitters, with transmitters showing higher seminal concentrations of interleukin 13 (IL-13), IL-15 and IL-33, and lower concentrations of interferon‐gamma, IL-15, macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF), IL-17, granulocyte-macrophage CSF (GM-CSF), IL-4, IL-16 and eotaxin. Although limited, the findings suggest that the seminal milieu modulates the risk of HIV transmission, providing a potential development opportunity for HIV prevention strategies.Vanpouille C, Frick A, Rawlings SA, et al.

Cytokine network and sexual HIV transmission zithromax prices walmart in men who have sex with men. Clin Infect Dis. 2020;71:2655–2662.The challenge of estimating global treatment eligibility for chronic hepatitis B from incomplete datasetsWorldwide, over 250 million people are estimated to live with zithromax prices walmart chronic hepatitis B (CHB), although only ~11% is diagnosed and a minority receives antiviral therapy. An estimate of the global proportion eligible for treatment was not previously available.

A systematic review analysed studies of CHB populations done between 2007 and 2018 to estimate the prevalence of cirrhosis, abnormal alanine aminotransferase, hepatitis B zithromax DNA >2000 or >20 000 IU/mL, hepatitis B e-antigen, and overall eligibility for treatment as per WHO and other guidelines. The pooled treatment eligibility estimate was 19% (95% CI 18% to 20%), with about zithromax prices walmart 10% requiring urgent treatment due to cirrhosis. However, the estimate should be interpreted with caution due to incomplete data acquisition and reporting in available studies. Standardised reporting is needed to improve global and regional estimates of CHB treatment eligibility and guide zithromax prices walmart effective policy formulation.Tan M, Bhadoria AS, Cui F, et al.

Estimating the proportion of people with chronic hepatitis B zithromax eligible for hepatitis B antiviral treatment worldwide. A systematic review and zithromax prices walmart meta-analysis. Lancet Gastroenterol Hepatol, 2021. 6:106–119.Broad geographical disparity in the contribution of HIV to the burden of cervical cancerThis systematic review and meta-analysis estimated the contribution of HIV to the global and regional burden of cervical cancer using data from 24 studies which included 236 127 women with HIV.

HIV markedly increased the risk zithromax prices walmart of cervical cancer (pooled relative risk 6.07. 95% CI 4.40 to 8.37). In 2018, 4.9% (95% CI 3.6% to 6.4%) of cervical cancers were attributable to HIV globally, although the population-attributable zithromax prices walmart fraction for HIV varied geographically, reaching 21% (95% CI 15.6% to 26.8%) in the African region. Cervical cancer is preventable and treatable.

Efforts are needed to expand access to HPV vaccination in sub-Saharan Africa. More immediately, there is an urgent need to zithromax prices walmart integrate cervical cancer screening within HIV services.Stelzle D, Tanaka LF, Lee KK, et al. Estimates of the global burden of cervical cancer associated with HIV. Lancet Glob zithromax prices walmart Health.

2020. 9:e161–69.The complex relationship between serum vitamin D and persistence of high-risk human papilloma zithromax Most cervical zithromax prices walmart high-risk human papilloma zithromax (hrHPV) s are transient and those that persist are more likely to progress to cancer. Based on the proposed immunomodulatory properties of vitamin D, a longitudinal study examined the association between serum concentrations of five vitamin D biomarkers and short-term persistent (vs transient or sporadic) detection of hrHPV in 72 women who collected monthly cervicovaginal swabs over 6 months. No significant associations were detected in the primary analysis.

In sensitivity analyses, zithromax prices walmart after multiple adjustments, serum concentrations of multiple vitamin D biomarkers were positively associated with the short-term persistence of 14 selected hrHPV types. The relationship between vitamin D and hrHPV warrants closer examination. Studies should have longer follow-up, include populations with more diverse vitamin D concentrations and account for vitamin D supplementation.Troja C, Hoofnagle AN, Szpiro A, zithromax prices walmart et al. Understanding the role of emerging vitamin D biomarkers on short-term persistence of high-risk HPV among mid-adult women.

J Infect Dis 2020. Online ahead zithromax prices walmart of printPublished in STI—the editor’s choice. One in five cases of with Neisseria gonorrhoeae clear spontaneouslyStudies have indicated that Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) s can resolve spontaneously without antibiotic therapy. A substudy of a randomised trial investigated zithromax prices walmart 405 untreated subjects (71% men) who underwent both pretrial and enrolment NG testing at the same anatomical site (genital, pharyngeal and rectal).

Based on nuclear acid amplification tests, 83 subjects (20.5%) showed clearance of the anatomical site within a median of 10 days (IQR 7–15) between tests. Those with spontaneous clearance were less likely to have concurrent chlamydia (p=0.029) and dysuria (p=0.035), but there were no differences in age, gender, sexual orientation, HIV status, number of previous NG episodes, and symptoms other than dysuria between those with and without clearance. Given the high rate of spontaneous resolution, point-of-care NG zithromax prices walmart testing should be considered to reduce unnecessary antibiotic treatment.Mensforth S, Ayinde OC, Ross J. Spontaneous clearance of genital and extragenital Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

Data from zithromax prices walmart GToG. STI 2020. 96:556–561..

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NYS announced the 2021 Income and Resource levels in GIS 20 MA/13 - - 2021 Medicaid Income Levels Here is the 2021 HRA Income and Resources Level Chart Non-MAGI - 2021 Disabled, 65+ or Blind ("DAB" or SSI-Related) and have is zithromax over the counter drug Medicare MAGI (2021)* (<. 65, Does not have Medicare)(OR has Medicare and has dependent child <. 18 or <.

19 in school) 138% is zithromax over the counter drug FPL*** Children <. 5 and pregnant women have HIGHER LIMITS than shown ESSENTIAL PLAN* For MAGI-eligible people over MAGI income limit up to 200% FPL No long term care. See info here 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 Income $884 (up from $875 in 2020) $1300 (up from $1,284 in 2020) $1,482 $2,004 $2,526 $2,146 $2,903 Resources $15,900 (up from $15,750 in 2020) $23,400 (up from $23,100 in 2020) NO LIMIT** NO LIMIT 2020 levels are in GIS 19 MA/12 – 2020 Medicaid Levels and Other Updates and attachments here * MAGI and ESSENTIAL plan levels are based on Federal Poverty Levels, which are not released until later in 2021.

2020 levels are used is zithromax over the counter drug until then. NEED TO KNOW PAST MEDICAID INCOME AND RESOURCE LEVELS?. WHAT IS THE HOUSEHOLD SIZE?.

See rules is zithromax over the counter drug here. HOW TO READ THE HRA Medicaid Levels chart - Boxes 1 and 2 are NON-MAGI Income and Resource levels -- Age 65+, Blind or Disabled and other adults who need to use "spend-down" because they are over the MAGI income levels. Box 10 on page 3 are the MAGI income levels -- The Affordable Care Act changed the rules for Medicaid income eligibility for many BUT NOT ALL New Yorkers.

People in the "MAGI" category - those NOT is zithromax over the counter drug on Medicare -- have expanded eligibility up to 138% of the Federal Poverty Line, so may now qualify for Medicaid even if they were not eligible before, or may now be eligible for Medicaid without a "spend-down." They have NO resource limit. Box 3 on page 1 is Spousal Impoverishment levels for Managed Long Term Care &. Nursing Homes and Box 8 has the Transfer Penalty rates for nursing home eligibility Box 4 has Medicaid Buy-In for Working People with Disabilities Under Age 65 (still 2017 levels til April 2018) Box 6 are Medicare Savings Program levels (will be updated in April 2018) MAGI INCOME LEVEL of 138% FPL applies to most adults who are not disabled and who do not have Medicare, AND can also apply to adults with Medicare if they have a dependent child/relative under age 18 or under 19 if in school.

42 C.F.R is zithromax over the counter drug. § 435.4. Certain populations have an even higher income limit - 224% FPL for pregnant women and babies <.

Age 1, is zithromax over the counter drug 154% FPL for children age 1 - 19. CAUTION. What is counted as income may not be what you think.

For the NON-MAGI Disabled/Aged 65+/Blind, income will still be determined by the same rules is zithromax over the counter drug as before, explained in this outline and these charts on income disregards. However, for the MAGI population - which is virtually everyone under age 65 who is not on Medicare - their income will now be determined under new rules, based on federal income tax concepts - called "Modifed Adjusted Gross Income" (MAGI). There are good changes and bad changes.

GOOD is zithromax over the counter drug. Veteran's benefits, Workers compensation, and gifts from family or others no longer count as income. BAD.

There is no more "spousal" or parental refusal for this population (but there is zithromax over the counter drug still is for the Disabled/Aged/Blind.) and some other rules. For all of the rules see. ALSO SEE 2018 Manual on Lump Sums and Impact on Public Benefits - with resource rules HOW TO DETERMINE SIZE OF HOUSEHOLD TO IDENTIFY WHICH INCOME LIMIT APPLIES The income limits increase with the "household size." In other words, the income limit for a family of 5 may be higher than the income limit for a single person.

HOWEVER, Medicaid rules about how is zithromax over the counter drug to calculate the household size are not intuitive or even logical. There are different rules depending on the "category" of the person seeking Medicaid. Here are the 2 basic categories and the rules for calculating their household size.

People who are Disabled, Aged 65+ or Blind - "DAB" or "SSI-Related" Category -- NON-MAGI - See this chart for their household is zithromax over the counter drug size. These same rules apply to the Medicare Savings Program, with some exceptions explained in this article. Everyone else -- MAGI - All children and adults under age 65, including people with disabilities who are not yet on Medicare -- this is the new "MAGI" population.

Their household size is zithromax over the counter drug will be determined using federal income tax rules, which are very complicated. New rule is explained in State's directive 13 ADM-03 - Medicaid Eligibility Changes under the Affordable Care Act (ACA) of 2010 (PDF) pp. 8-10 of the PDF, This PowerPoint by NYLAG on MAGI Budgeting attempts to explain the new MAGI budgeting, including how to determine the Household Size.

See slides 28-49 is zithromax over the counter drug. Also seeLegal Aid Society and Empire Justice Center materials OLD RULE used until end of 2013 -- Count the person(s) applying for Medicaid who live together, plus any of their legally responsible relatives who do not receive SNA, ADC, or SSI and reside with an applicant/recipient. Spouses or legally responsible for one another, and parents are legally responsible for their children under age 21 (though if the child is disabled, use the rule in the 1st "DAB" category.

Under this rule, a child may be excluded from the household if that child's income causes other family members to lose Medicaid eligibility. See 18 NYCRR 360-4.2, MRG p. 573, NYS GIS 2000 MA-007 CAUTION.

Different people in the same household may be in different "categories" and hence have different household sizes AND Medicaid income and resource limits. If a man is age 67 and has Medicare and his wife is age 62 and not disabled or blind, the husband's household size for Medicaid is determined under Category 1/ Non-MAGI above and his wife's is under Category 2/MAGI. The following programs were available prior to 2014, but are now discontinued because they are folded into MAGI Medicaid.

Prenatal Care Assistance Program (PCAP) was Medicaid for pregnant women and children under age 19, with higher income limits for pregnant woman and infants under one year (200% FPL for pregnant women receiving perinatal coverage only not full Medicaid) than for children ages 1-18 (133% FPL). Medicaid for adults between ages 21-65 who are not disabled and without children under 21 in the household. It was sometimes known as "S/CC" category for Singles and Childless Couples.

This category had lower income limits than DAB/ADC-related, but had no asset limits. It did not allow "spend down" of excess income. This category has now been subsumed under the new MAGI adult group whose limit is now raised to 138% FPL.

65, Does not have zithromax prices walmart Medicare)(OR has Medicare and has dependent child <. 18 or <. 19 in school) 138% FPL*** Children <. 5 and zithromax prices walmart pregnant women have HIGHER LIMITS than shown ESSENTIAL PLAN* For MAGI-eligible people over MAGI income limit up to 200% FPL No long term care. See info here 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 Income $884 (up from $875 in 2020) $1300 (up from $1,284 in 2020) $1,482 $2,004 $2,526 $2,146 $2,903 Resources $15,900 (up from $15,750 in 2020) $23,400 (up from $23,100 in 2020) NO LIMIT** NO LIMIT 2020 levels are in GIS 19 MA/12 – 2020 Medicaid Levels and Other Updates and attachments here * MAGI and ESSENTIAL plan levels are based on Federal Poverty Levels, which are not released until later in 2021.

2020 levels are used until then. NEED zithromax prices walmart TO KNOW PAST MEDICAID INCOME AND RESOURCE LEVELS?. WHAT IS THE HOUSEHOLD SIZE?. See rules here. HOW TO READ THE HRA Medicaid Levels chart - Boxes 1 and 2 are NON-MAGI Income and Resource levels -- Age zithromax prices walmart 65+, Blind or Disabled and other adults who need to use "spend-down" because they are over the MAGI income levels.

Box 10 on page 3 are the MAGI income levels -- The Affordable Care Act changed the rules for Medicaid income eligibility for many BUT NOT ALL New Yorkers. People in the "MAGI" category - those NOT on Medicare -- have expanded eligibility up to 138% of the Federal Poverty Line, so may now qualify for Medicaid even if they were not eligible before, or may now be eligible for Medicaid without a "spend-down." They have NO resource limit. Box 3 on page 1 is Spousal zithromax prices walmart Impoverishment levels for Managed Long Term Care &. Nursing Homes and Box 8 has the Transfer Penalty rates for nursing home eligibility Box 4 has Medicaid Buy-In for Working People with Disabilities Under Age 65 (still 2017 levels til April 2018) Box 6 are Medicare Savings Program levels (will be updated in April 2018) MAGI INCOME LEVEL of 138% FPL applies to most adults who are not disabled and who do not have Medicare, AND can also apply to adults with Medicare if they have a dependent child/relative under age 18 or under 19 if in school. 42 C.F.R.

§ 435.4 zithromax prices walmart. Certain populations have an even higher income limit - 224% FPL for pregnant women and babies <. Age 1, 154% FPL for children age 1 - 19. CAUTION zithromax prices walmart. What is counted as income may not be what you think.

For the NON-MAGI Disabled/Aged 65+/Blind, income will still be determined by the same rules as before, explained in this outline and these charts on income disregards. However, for the MAGI population zithromax prices walmart - which is virtually everyone under age 65 who is not on Medicare - their income will now be determined under new rules, based on federal income tax concepts - called "Modifed Adjusted Gross Income" (MAGI). There are good changes and bad changes. GOOD. Veteran's benefits, Workers compensation, and gifts from family or others no longer count as income zithromax prices walmart.

BAD. There is no more "spousal" or parental refusal for this population (but there still is for the Disabled/Aged/Blind.) and some other rules. For zithromax prices walmart all of the rules see. ALSO SEE 2018 Manual on Lump Sums and Impact on Public Benefits - with resource rules HOW TO DETERMINE SIZE OF HOUSEHOLD TO IDENTIFY WHICH INCOME LIMIT APPLIES The income limits increase with the "household size." In other words, the income limit for a family of 5 may be higher than the income limit for a single person. HOWEVER, Medicaid rules about how to calculate the household size are not intuitive or even logical.

There are different rules depending on zithromax prices walmart the "category" of the person seeking Medicaid. Here are the 2 basic categories and the rules for calculating their household size. People who are Disabled, Aged 65+ or Blind - "DAB" or "SSI-Related" Category -- NON-MAGI - See this chart for their household size. These same rules apply to the Medicare Savings Program, with some exceptions explained in this zithromax prices walmart article. Everyone else -- MAGI - All children and adults under age 65, including people with disabilities who are not yet on Medicare -- this is the new "MAGI" population.

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Spouses or legally responsible for one another, and parents are legally responsible for their children under age 21 (though if the child is disabled, use the rule in the 1st "DAB" category. Under this rule, a child may be excluded from the household if that child's income causes other family members to lose Medicaid eligibility. See 18 NYCRR 360-4.2, MRG zithromax prices walmart p. 573, NYS GIS 2000 MA-007 CAUTION. Different people in the same household may be in different "categories" and hence have different household sizes AND Medicaid income and resource limits.

If a man is age 67 and has Medicare and his wife is age 62 and not disabled or blind, the husband's household size for Medicaid is determined under Category 1/ Non-MAGI above and his wife's is under zithromax prices walmart Category 2/MAGI. The following programs were available prior to 2014, but are now discontinued because they are folded into MAGI Medicaid. Prenatal Care Assistance Program (PCAP) was Medicaid for pregnant women and children under age 19, with higher income limits for pregnant woman and infants under one year (200% FPL for pregnant women receiving perinatal coverage only not full Medicaid) than for children ages 1-18 (133% FPL). Medicaid for adults between ages 21-65 zithromax prices walmart who are not disabled and without children under 21 in the household. It was sometimes known as "S/CC" category for Singles and Childless Couples.

This category had lower income limits than DAB/ADC-related, but had no asset limits. It did not allow "spend down" of excess income. This category has now been subsumed under the new MAGI adult group whose limit is now raised to 138% FPL. Family Health Plus - this was an expansion of Medicaid to families with income up to 150% FPL and for childless adults up to 100% FPL.

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How to cite this 1g zithromax gonorrhea article:Singh OP. Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2030. We must 1g zithromax gonorrhea rise to the challenge. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:415-7In May 2013, WHO's Mental Health Action Plan 2013-2020 was adopted at the 66th World Health Assembly which was extended until 2030 by the 72nd World Health Assembly in May 2019 with modifications of some of the objectives and goal targets to ensure its alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Further, in 1g zithromax gonorrhea September 2021, the 74th World Health Assembly accepted the updates to the action plan, including updates to the target options for indicators and implementation.

This is an opportunity for the psychiatric community to rise to the challenge and work towards the realization of these objectives and in turn to integrate psychiatry with the mainstream of medicine.The change in objectives and targets is summarized in [Table 1].Table 1. Comparison between Mental Health Action Plans 2013-20 and 2013-30Click here to viewAs it is 1g zithromax gonorrhea obvious that there is an enormous opportunity for the psychiatric community to implement things that we always have been talking about like:Global target 2.2 – Target's doubling of community-based mental health facilities by 2030 in 80% of countries. It would be a substantial achievement for the psychiatric community for its implementation will lead to significant service to psychiatric patientsGlobal target 2.3 – Integration of mental health care into primary healthcareGlobal target 3.2 – Reduction in suicide rate by one-third by 2030Global target 3.3 – Psychological care for disasterGlobal target 4.2 – Mental health research to be doubled by 2030.What has brought about profound change is target 3.4 of Sustainable Development Goal, which is to reduce premature death by NCD by one-third by promoting mental health and wellbeing. It is an opportunity for us to expand 1g zithromax gonorrhea psychiatry by being involved in general medical care and reduce stigma. We must also utilize this opportunity to press for the greater representation of psychiatry in MBBS curriculum throughout the country and stop not till it gets a separate subject status in undergraduate medical studies.Now is the time for us to strive to achieve all the objectives which provide an opportunity to expand mental health care, reduce stigma, and translate all the talk of furthering the growth of mental health into action.[2] References 1.World Health Organization.

Mental Health 1g zithromax gonorrhea Action Plan 2013-2020. Geneva. World Health 1g zithromax gonorrhea Organization. 2013. 2.World Health 1g zithromax gonorrhea Organization.

Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013-2030. Geneva. World Health Organization. 2021. Correspondence Address:Om Prakash SinghDepartment of Psychiatry, WBMES, Kolkata, West Bengal.

AMRI Hospitals, Kolkata, West Bengal IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_811_21 Tables [Table 1]Abstract Background. Empathy plays a role not only in pathophysiology but also in planning management strategies for alcohol dependence.

However, few studies have looked into it. No data are available regarding the variation of empathy with abstinence and motivation. Assessment based on cognitive and affective dimensions of empathy is needed.Aim. This study aimed to assess cognitive and affective empathy in men with alcohol dependence and compared it with normal controls. Association of empathy with disease-specific variables, motivation, and abstinence was also done.Methods.

This was a cross-sectional observational study conducted in the outpatient department of a tertiary care center. Sixty men with alcohol dependence and 60 healthy controls were recruited and assessed using the Basic Empathy Scale for cognitive and affective empathy. The University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale was used to assess motivation. Other variables were assessed using a semi-structured pro forma. Comparative analysis was done using unpaired t-test and one-way ANOVA.

Correlation was done using Pearson's correlation test.Results. Cases with alcohol dependence showed lower levels of cognitive, affective, and total empathy as compared to controls. Affective and total empathy were higher in abstinent men. Empathy varied across various stages of motivation, with a significant difference seen between precontemplation and action stages. Empathy correlated negatively with number of relapses and positively with family history of addiction.Conclusions.

Empathy (both cognitive and affective) is significantly reduced in alcohol dependence. Higher empathy correlates with lesser relapses. Abstinence and progression in motivation cycle is associated with remission in empathic deficits.Keywords. Abstinence, alcohol, empathy, motivationHow to cite this article:Nachane HB, Nadadgalli GV, Umate MS. Cognitive and affective empathy in men with alcohol dependence.

Relation with clinical profile, abstinence, and motivation. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:418-23How to cite this URL:Nachane HB, Nadadgalli GV, Umate MS. Cognitive and affective empathy in men with alcohol dependence. Relation with clinical profile, abstinence, and motivation. Indian J Psychiatry [serial online] 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 12];63:418-23.

Available from. Https://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?. 2021/63/5/418/328088 Introduction Alcohol dependence is as much a social challenge as it is a clinical one.[1] Clinicians have faced several challenges in helping subjects with alcohol dependence stay in treatment and maintain abstinence.[2] In substance abuse treatment, clients' motivation to change has often been the focus of both clinical interest and frustration.[3],[4] Motivation has been described as a prerequisite for treatment, without which the clinician can do little.[5] Similarly, lack of motivation has been used to explain the failure of individuals to begin, continue, comply with, and succeed in treatment.[6],[7] Treatment modalities have focused on various aspects of motivation enhancement – such as locus of control, social support, and networking.[8] Recent literature is focusing on the role empathy plays in pathogenesis and treatment seeking in alcohol dependence.[9] However, the way in which empathy is perceived has recently undergone drastic changes, specifically its role in both emotion processing and social interactions.[10]Broadly speaking, empathy is believed to be constituted of two components – cognitive and affective (or emotional).[9] Affective empathy (AE) deals with the ability of detecting and experiencing the others' emotional states, whereas cognitive empathy (CE) relates to perspective-taking ability allowing to understand and predict the other's various mental states (sometimes used synonymously with theory of mind).[11] Empathy constitutes an essential emotional competence for interpersonal relations and has been shown to be highly impaired in various psychiatric disorders including alcohol dependence.[9],[12] Empathy is crucial for maintaining interpersonal relations, which are frequently impaired in alcoholics and prove to be a source of frequent relapses.[9] However, research pertaining to empathy in alcohol has generated varied results.[9] Factors such as lapses, retaining in treatment, and abstinence have also been linked to subjects' empathy.[9],[13] However, few of these have assessed CE and AE separately.[9],[13] Previous literature has demonstrated that empathy correlates with the motivation to help others.[14] No study however addresses the role empathy may play in self-help, a crucial step in the management of alcohol dependence. A link between an alcoholic's empathy and motivation is lacking. It is imperative to highlight changes in empathy with changes in motivation, over and above the dichotomy of abstinence and dependence.Detailed understanding of empathy, or a lack thereof, and its fate during the natural course of the illness, particularly with each step of the motivation cycle, will prove fruitful in planning better strategies for alcohol dependence.

This will, in turn, lead to better handling of its social consequences and reduction in its burden on society and healthcare. The present study was thus formulated, which aimed at comparing CE, AE, and total empathy (TE) between subjects of alcohol dependence and normal controls. Differences in CE, AE and TE with abstinence and stage of motivation were also assessed. We also correlated CE, AE, and TE with disease-specific variables. Materials and Methods The present study is a cross-sectional observational study done in the outpatient psychiatric department of a tertiary care center.

Ethical clearance was obtained from the institutional ethics committee (IEC/Pharm/RP/102/Feb/2019). The study was conducted over a period of 6 months (March 2019–August 2019) and purposive sampling method was used. Sixty subjects, between the ages of 18–65 years, diagnosed with alcohol dependence as per the International Classification of Diseases-10 criteria were included in the study as cases. Subjects with comorbid psychiatric and medical disorders (four subjects) and those dependent on more than one substance (six subjects) were excluded. As all the available cases were male, the study was restricted to males.

Sixty normal healthy male controls who were not suffering from any medical or psychiatric illness (five subjects excluded) were recruited from the normal population (these were healthy relatives of patients attending our outpatient department). Subjects were explained about the nature of the study and written informed consent was obtained from them. A semi-structured pro forma was devised to include sociodemographic variables, such as age, marital status, family structure, education, and employment status and disease-specific variables in the cases, such as total duration of illness, number of relapses, number of hospital admissions, and family history of psychiatric illness/substance dependence. Empathy was assessed using the Basic Empathy Scale for Adults for both cases and controls and motivation was assessed in the cases using the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URICA). The scales were translated into the vernacular languages (Hindi and Marathi) and the translated versions were used.

The scales were administered by a single rater in one sitting. The entire interview was completed in 20–30 min.InstrumentsThe Basic Empathy Scale for AdultsIt is a 20-item scale which was developed by Jolliffe and Farrington.[15] Each question is rated on a five point Likert type scale. We used the two-factor model where nine items assess CE (Items 3, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19, and 20) and 11 items assess AE (Items 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, and 18). The total score gives TE, which can range from 20 (deficit in empathy) to 100 (high level of empathy).The University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URICA)This scale is based on the transtheoretical model of motivation given by Prochaska and DiClemente, which divides the readiness to change temporally into four stages. Precontemplation (PC), contemplation (C), action (A), and maintenance (M).[16] The URICA is a 32-item self-report measure that grades responses on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from one (strong disagreement) to five (strong agreement).

The subscales can be combined arithmetically (C + A + M − PC) to yield a second-order continuous readiness to change score that is used to assess readiness to change at entrance to treatment. Based on this score, the individual is classified into the stage of motivation (precontemplation, contemplation, action, and maintenance)Statistical analysisSPSS 20.0 software was used for carrying out the statistical analysis. (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0, released 2011, Armonk, NY. IBM Corp.). Data were expressed as mean (standard deviation) for continuous variables and frequencies and percentages for categorical variables.

Comparative analyses were done using unpaired Student's t-test and one-way ANOVA with post hoc Bonferroni's test wherever appropriate. The correlation was done using Pearson's correlation test and point biserial correlation test for continuous and dichotomous categorical variables, respectively. The effect size was determined by calculating Cohen's d (d) for t-test, partial eta square (ηp2) for ANOVA, and correlation coefficient (r) for Pearson's correlation/point biserial correlation test. P <0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results A total of 120 subjects consisting of 60 cases and 60 controls who satisfied the inclusion and exclusion criteria were considered for the analysis.

The mean age of cases was 40.80 (8.69) years, whereas that of controls was 39.02 (10.12) years. About 80% of the cases and 88% of the controls were married. Only 58% of the cases and 57% of the controls were educated. Almost 80% of the cases versus 95% of the controls were employed at the time of assessment. Majority of the cases (75%) and controls (83%) belonged to nuclear families.

None of the sociodemographic variables varied significantly across cases and controls. Comparison of empathy between cases and controls using unpaired t-test showed cognitive (t(118) =2.59, P = 0.01), affective (t(118) =2.19, P = 0.03), and total empathy (t(118) =2.39, P = 0.02) to be significantly lower in cases [Table 1]. The analysis showed the difference to be most significant for CE (d = 0.48), followed by TE (d = 0.44), and then AE (d = 0.40), implying that it is CE that is most significantly lowered in men with alcohol dependence. [Table 2] shows the correlation between empathy and disease-related variables amng the cases using Pearson's correlation/point biserial correlation tests. Number of relapses negatively correlated with all three measures of empathy, most with CE (r = −0.42, P = 0.001), followed by TE (r = −0.39, P = 0.002) and least with AE (r = −0.31, P = 0.016).

This means that men with alcohol dependence who are more empathic tend to have lesser relapses. Having a family history of mental illness/substance use was seen to have a positive correlation with CE (r = 0.43, P = 0.001) and TE (r = 0.30, P = 0.02) but not AE (P = 0.17). As the coefficients of correlation for all the relations were <0.5, the strength of correlations in our sample was mild–moderate.Table 2. Relation of disease related variables with total empathy in casesClick here to viewMotivation and readiness to change was assessed in the cases using the URICA scale, which had a mean score of 8.78 (4.09). About 50% of the subjects were currently consuming alcohol (30 out of 60) and the remaining were completely abstinent.

Comparing empathy scores among those subjects still consuming and those subjects completely abstinent using unpaired t-test [Figure 1] showed that abstinent patients had significantly higher AE (t(58) =2.72, mean difference = 5.10 [95% confidence interval [CI]. 1.34–8.86], P = 0.009) and TE (t(58) =2.88, mean difference = 8.60 [95% CI. 2.63–14.57], P = 0.006) as compared to those still consuming but not CE (t(58) =1.93, mean difference = 2.83 [95% CI. 0.09–5.77], P = 0.058). This difference was most marked in TE (d = 0.77), followed by AE (d = 0.71).

Dividing the cases into their respective stages of motivation showed that 20 out of 60 (33%) subjects were in precontemplation stage, 10 out of 60 (17%) in contemplation stage and 30 out of 60 (50%) in action stage. None were seen to be in maintenance phase. Using one-way ANOVA to assess the difference in empathy across the various stages of motivation [Table 3], it was found that AE (F (2,57) = 5.03, P = 0.01) and TE (F (2, 57) = 4.25, P = 0.02) varied across the motivation cycle but not CE (F (2,57) = 2.26, P = 0.11). Difference was more significant for affective empathy (ηp2 = 0.15) as compared to total empathy (ηp2 = 0.13), although a small one. In both cases of affective and total empathy, it can be seen that empathy increases gradually with each stage in motivation cycle [Figure 2].

However, using the post hoc Bonferroni test [Table 4] revealed that significant difference in both cases was seen between precontemplation and action stages only (P <. 0.05).Figure 1. Difference in cognitive, affective, and total empathy among dependent and abstinent subjects. Data expressed as mean (standard deviation)Click here to viewFigure 2. Cognitive, affective, and total empathy in cases across precontemplation, contemplation, and action stages of motivation.

Data expressed as mean (standard deviation)Click here to viewTable 4. Comparison of cognitive, affective and total empathy in individual stages of motivation using post hoc Bonferroni testClick here to view Discussion Role of empathy in addictive behaviors is a pivotal one.[17] The present analysis shows that subjects dependent on alcohol lack empathic abilities as compared to healthy controls. This translates to both cognitive and affective components of empathy. Earlier research appears divided in this aspect. Massey et al.

Elucidated reduction in both CE and AE by behavioral, neuroanatomical, and self-report methods.[18] Impairment in affect processing system in alcohol dependence was cited as the reason behind the so-called “cognitive-affective dissociation of empathy” in alcoholics, which resulted in a changed AE, with relatively intact CE.[9],[17] However, there is enough evidence to suggest the lack of social cognition, emotional cognition, and related cognitive deficits in alcohol-dependent subjects.[19] Cognitive deficits responsible for dampening of CE seen in addictions have been attributed to frontal deficits.[19] In fact, it is a combined deficit which leads to impaired social and interpersonal functioning in alcoholics.[20] Hence, our primary finding is in keeping with this hypothesis.Empathy may relate to various aspects of the psychopathological process.[21] Disorders have also been classified based on which aspect of empathy is deficient – cognitive, affective, or general.[21] On such a spectrum, alcohol dependence should definitely be classified as a general empathic deficit disorder. It is also known that within a disorder, the two components of empathy may show variation, depending upon various factors.[21] Addiction processes may have impulsivity, antisocial personality traits, externalizing behaviors, and internalizing behaviors as a part of their presentations, all factors which effect empathy.[22],[23] Hence, it is likely that difference in empathy could be attributable to these factors, even though it has been shown that empathy operates independent of them to impact the disease process.[18]Abstinence period is associated with several physiological and psychological changes and is a key experience in the life of patients with alcohol use disorder.[24] The present analysis shows that abstinence period is associated with higher empathy than the active phase of illness. It has been demonstrated that empathy correlates significantly with abstinence and retention in treatment.[13],[23] A study has described improvement in empathy, attributable to personality changes with abstinence, in subjects following up for treatment in self-help groups.[13] A causative effect of improvement in empathy due to the 12-step program and abstinence has been hypothesized,[13] and our findings support this. Empathy is a key factor in motivation to help others and oneself when in distress. This suggests a role for it in motivation to quit and treatment seeking.

Yet still, few studies have made this assessment. Across the motivation cycle, we found that TE and AE were significantly higher for subjects in action phase than for precontemplation and contemplation phases. CE showed no significant changes. Thus, it appears that AE is more amenable to change and instrumental in motivation enhancement. Treatment modalities for dependence should inculcate methods addressing empathy, especially AE as this would be more beneficial.

It is also possible that these patients may innately have higher empathy and hence are motivated to quit alcohol, as has been previously demonstrated.[9]It is clear that in adults who have developed alcohol dependence, deficits in empathic processing remit in recovery and this finding is crucial to optimize long-term outcomes and minimize the likelihood of relapse. Altered empathic abilities have been shown to impair future problem solving in social situations, thus impacting the prognosis of the illness.[25] Similarly, it also hampers treatment seeking in alcoholics. CE played a greater role in our sample as compared to AE, contrary to what most literature states.[26] This is furthered by the fact that CE and TE correlated with number of relapses and having a family history of mental illness in our subjects, whereas AE correlated with only number of relapses. Subjects with higher empathy had significantly lesser relapses, suggesting a role for empathy, particularly CE in maintaining abstinence, even though it is least likely to change. This relation has been demonstrated by other researchers also.[13],[23] Having a positive family history of mental illness/addictions was associated with higher CE and TE.

Genes have shown to influence development and dynamicity of empathy in healthy individuals and as genetics play a major role in heredity of addictions, levels of empathy may also vary accordingly.[21],[27] As AE did not show this relation, it appears CE and AE may not be “equally heritable.” However, more research in this area is needed.Our study was not without limitations. Factors such as premorbid personality and baseline empathy were not considered. As all cases and controls were males, gender differences could not be assessed. We did not have any patients in the maintenance phase of motivation and hence this difference could not be assessed. It also might be more prudent to have a prospective study design wherein patients are followed throughout their motivation cycle to derive a more robust relation between empathy and motivation.

As our study was a cross-sectional study, it was not possible.To mention a few strengths, our analysis adds to the need for studying CE and AE separately, as they may impact different aspects of the illness and show varied dynamicity over the natural course of alcohol dependence owing to their difference in neural substrates.[28] While many risk factors for alcohol dependence are difficult if not impossible to change,[29] some components of empathy may be modifiable,[13] particularly AE. Abstinence is associated with an increase in AE and TE and thus empathy may be crucial in propelling an individual along the motivation cycle. Our analysis stands out in being one of the few to establish a relation between stages of motivation and components of empathy in alcohol dependence, which will definitely have further research and therapeutic implications. Conclusions Empathic deficits in alcohol dependence are well established, being more for CE than AE although both being affected. Even though psychotherapeutic approaches have hitherto targeted therapist's empathy,[30] we suggest that a detailed understanding of patient's empathy is equally crucial in the management.

Increment in AE and TE is seen with abstinence and improvement in subject's motivation. Relapses are lesser in individuals with higher empathy and it is possible that those who relapse develop low empathy. The present analysis is associational and causality inference should be done with caution. Modalities of treatment which focus on empathy and its subsequent advancement, such as brief intervention and self-help groups, have met with ample success in clinical practice.[13],[31] Adding to existing factors that have proved successful for abstinence,[32] focusing on improving empathy at specific points in the motivation cycle (contemplation to action) may motivate individuals better to stay in treatment and reduce further relapses.Financial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest. References 1.Caetano R, Cunradi C.

Alcohol dependence. A public health perspective. Addiction 2002;97:633-45. 2.Willenbring ML. The past and future of research on treatment of alcohol dependence.

Alcohol Res Health 2010;33:55-63. 3.DiClemente CC. Conceptual models and applied research. The ongoing contribution of the transtheoretical model. J Addict Nurs 2005;16:5-12.

4.Velasquez MM, Crouch C, von Sternberg K, Grosdanis I. Motivation for change and psychological distress in homeless substance abusers. J Subst Abuse Treat 2000;19:395-401. 5.Beckman LJ. An attributional analysis of Alcoholics Anonymous.

J Stud Alcohol 1980;41:714-26. 6.Appelbaum A. A critical re-examination of the concept of “motivation for change” in psychoanalytic treatment. Int J Psychoanal 1972;53:51-9. 7.Miller WR.

Motivation for treatment. A review with special emphasis on alcoholism. Psychol Bull 1985;98:84-107. 8.Murphy PN, Bentall RP. Motivation to withdraw from heroin.

A factor-analytic study. Br J Addict 1992;87:245-50. 9.Maurage P, Grynberg D, Noël X, Joassin F, Philippot P, Hanak C, et al. Dissociation between affective and cognitive empathy in alcoholism. A specific deficit for the emotional dimension.

Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2011;35:1662-8. 10.de Vignemont F, Singer T. The empathic brain. How, when and why?. Trends Cogn Sci 2006;10:435-41.

11.Reniers RL, Corcoran R, Drake R, Shryane NM, Völlm BA. The QCAE. A questionnaire of cognitive and affective empathy. J Pers Assess 2011;93:84-95. 12.Martinotti G, Di Nicola M, Tedeschi D, Cundari S, Janiri L.

Empathy ability is impaired in alcohol-dependent patients. Am J Addict 2009;18:157-61. 13.McCown W. The relationship between impulsivity, empathy and involvement in twelve step self-help substance abuse treatment groups. Br J Addict 1989;84:391-3.

14.Krebs D. Empathy and auism. J Pers Soc Psychol 1975;32:1134-46. 15.Jolliffe D, Farrington DP. Development and validation of the basic empathy scale.

J Adolesc 2006;29:589-611. 16.McConnaughy EA, Prochaska JO, Velicer WF. Stages of change in psychotherapy. Measurement and sample profiles. Psychol Psychother 1983;20:368-75.

17.Ferrari V, Smeraldi E, Bottero G, Politi E. Addiction and empathy. A preliminary analysis. Neurol Sci 2014;35:855-9. 18.Massey SH, Newmark RL, Wakschlag LS.

Explicating the role of empathic processes in substance use disorders. A conceptual framework and research agenda. Drug Alcohol Rev 2018;37:316-32. 19.Uekermann J, Daum I. Social cognition in alcoholism.

A link to prefrontal cortex dysfunction?. Addiction 2008;103:726-35. 20.Uekermann J, Channon S, Winkel K, Schlebusch P, Daum I. Theory of mind, humour processing and executive functioning in alcoholism. Addiction 2007;102:232-40.

21.Gonzalez-Liencres C, Shamay-Tsoory SG, Brüne M. Towards a neuroscience of empathy. Ontogeny, phylogeny, brain mechanisms, context and psychopathology. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013;37:1537-48. 22.Miller PA, Eisenberg N.

The relation of empathy to aggressive and externalizing/antisocial behavior. Psychol Bull 1988;103:324-44. 23.McCown W. The effect of impulsivity and empathy on abstinence of poly-substance abusers. A prospective study.

Br J Addict 1990;85:635-7. 24.Pitel AL, Beaunieux H, Witkowski T, Vabret F, Guillery-Girard B, Quinette P, et al. Genuine episodic memory deficits and executive dysfunctions in alcoholic subjects early in abstinence. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2007;31:1169-78. 25.Thoma P, Friedmann C, Suchan B.

Empathy and social problem solving in alcohol dependence, mood disorders and selected personality disorders. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013;37:448-70. 26.Marinkovic K, Oscar-Berman M, Urban T, O'Reilly CE, Howard JA, Sawyer K, et al. Alcoholism and dampened temporal limbic activation to emotional faces. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 2009;33:1880-92.

27.Smith A. Cognitive empathy and emotional empathy in human behavior and evolution. Psychol Rec 2006;56:3-21. 28.Decety J, Jackson PL. A social-neuroscience perspective on empathy.

Curr Dir Psychol Sci 2006;15:54-8. 29.Tarter RE, Edwards K. Psychological factors associated with the risk for alcoholism. Alcohol Clin Exp Res 1988;12:471-80. 30.Moyers TB, Miller WR.

Is low therapist empathy toxic?. Psychol Addict Behav 2013;27:878-84. 31.Heather N. Psychology and brief interventions. Br J Addict 1989;84:357-70.

32.Cook S, Heather N, McCambridge J. Posttreatment motivation and alcohol treatment outcome 9 months later. Findings from structural equation modeling. J Consult Clin Psychol 2015;83:232-7. Correspondence Address:Hrishikesh Bipin Nachane63, Sharmishtha, Tarangan, Thane West, Thane - 400 606, Maharashtra IndiaSource of Support.

None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_1101_2 Figures [Figure 1], [Figure 2] Tables [Table 1], [Table 2], [Table 3], [Table 4].

How to cite 1000mg zithromax online this zithromax prices walmart article:Singh OP. Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2030. We must rise to the challenge zithromax prices walmart.

Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:415-7In May 2013, WHO's Mental Health Action Plan 2013-2020 was adopted at the 66th World Health Assembly which was extended until 2030 by the 72nd World Health Assembly in May 2019 with modifications of some of the objectives and goal targets to ensure its alignment with the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Further, in September 2021, the 74th World Health Assembly accepted the updates to the action plan, including updates to zithromax prices walmart the target options for indicators and implementation. This is an opportunity for the psychiatric community to rise to the challenge and work towards the realization of these objectives and in turn to integrate psychiatry with the mainstream of medicine.The change in objectives and targets is summarized in [Table 1].Table 1.

Comparison between Mental Health Action Plans 2013-20 and 2013-30Click here to viewAs it is obvious that there is an enormous zithromax prices walmart opportunity for the psychiatric community to implement things that we always have been talking about like:Global target 2.2 – Target's doubling of community-based mental health facilities by 2030 in 80% of countries. It would be a substantial achievement for the psychiatric community for its implementation will lead to significant service to psychiatric patientsGlobal target 2.3 – Integration of mental health care into primary healthcareGlobal target 3.2 – Reduction in suicide rate by one-third by 2030Global target 3.3 – Psychological care for disasterGlobal target 4.2 – Mental health research to be doubled by 2030.What has brought about profound change is target 3.4 of Sustainable Development Goal, which is to reduce premature death by NCD by one-third by promoting mental health and wellbeing. It is an opportunity for us to expand psychiatry zithromax prices walmart by being involved in general medical care and reduce stigma.

We must also utilize this opportunity to press for the greater representation of psychiatry in MBBS curriculum throughout the country and stop not till it gets a separate subject status in undergraduate medical studies.Now is the time for us to strive to achieve all the objectives which provide an opportunity to expand mental health care, reduce stigma, and translate all the talk of furthering the growth of mental health into action.[2] References 1.World Health Organization. Mental Health zithromax prices walmart Action Plan 2013-2020. Geneva.

World Health Organization zithromax prices walmart. 2013. 2.World zithromax prices walmart Health Organization.

Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013-2030. Geneva. World Health Organization.

2021. Correspondence Address:Om Prakash SinghDepartment of Psychiatry, WBMES, Kolkata, West Bengal. AMRI Hospitals, Kolkata, West Bengal IndiaSource of Support.

None, Conflict of Interest. NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_811_21 Tables [Table 1]Abstract Background.

Empathy plays a role not only in pathophysiology but also in planning management strategies for alcohol dependence. However, few studies have looked into it. No data are available regarding the variation of empathy with abstinence and motivation.

Assessment based on cognitive and affective dimensions of empathy is needed.Aim. This study aimed to assess cognitive and affective empathy in men with alcohol dependence and compared it with normal controls. Association of empathy with disease-specific variables, motivation, and abstinence was also done.Methods.

This was a cross-sectional observational study conducted in the outpatient department of a tertiary care center. Sixty men with alcohol dependence and 60 healthy controls were recruited and assessed using the Basic Empathy Scale for cognitive and affective empathy. The University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale was used to assess motivation.

Other variables were assessed using a semi-structured pro forma. Comparative analysis was done using unpaired t-test and one-way ANOVA. Correlation was done using Pearson's correlation test.Results.

Cases with alcohol dependence showed lower levels of cognitive, affective, and total empathy as compared to controls. Affective and total empathy were higher in abstinent men. Empathy varied across various stages of motivation, with a significant difference seen between precontemplation and action stages.

Empathy correlated negatively with number of relapses and positively with family history of addiction.Conclusions. Empathy (both cognitive and affective) is significantly reduced in alcohol dependence. Higher empathy correlates with lesser relapses.

Abstinence and progression in motivation cycle is associated with remission in empathic deficits.Keywords. Abstinence, alcohol, empathy, motivationHow to cite this article:Nachane HB, Nadadgalli GV, Umate MS. Cognitive and affective empathy in men with alcohol dependence.

Relation with clinical profile, abstinence, and motivation. Indian J Psychiatry 2021;63:418-23How to cite this URL:Nachane HB, Nadadgalli GV, Umate MS. Cognitive and affective empathy in men with alcohol dependence.

Relation with clinical profile, abstinence, and motivation. Indian J Psychiatry [serial online] 2021 [cited 2021 Oct 12];63:418-23. Available from.

Https://www.indianjpsychiatry.org/text.asp?. 2021/63/5/418/328088 Introduction Alcohol dependence is as much a social challenge as it is a clinical one.[1] Clinicians have faced several challenges in helping subjects with alcohol dependence stay in treatment and maintain abstinence.[2] In substance abuse treatment, clients' motivation to change has often been the focus of both clinical interest and frustration.[3],[4] Motivation has been described as a prerequisite for treatment, without which the clinician can do little.[5] Similarly, lack of motivation has been used to explain the failure of individuals to begin, continue, comply with, and succeed in treatment.[6],[7] Treatment modalities have focused on various aspects of motivation enhancement – such as locus of control, social support, and networking.[8] Recent literature is focusing on the role empathy plays in pathogenesis and treatment seeking in alcohol dependence.[9] However, the way in which empathy is perceived has recently undergone drastic changes, specifically its role in both emotion processing and social interactions.[10]Broadly speaking, empathy is believed to be constituted of two components – cognitive and affective (or emotional).[9] Affective empathy (AE) deals with the ability of detecting and experiencing the others' emotional states, whereas cognitive empathy (CE) relates to perspective-taking ability allowing to understand and predict the other's various mental states (sometimes used synonymously with theory of mind).[11] Empathy constitutes an essential emotional competence for interpersonal relations and has been shown to be highly impaired in various psychiatric disorders including alcohol dependence.[9],[12] Empathy is crucial for maintaining interpersonal relations, which are frequently impaired in alcoholics and prove to be a source of frequent relapses.[9] However, research pertaining to empathy in alcohol has generated varied results.[9] Factors such as lapses, retaining in treatment, and abstinence have also been linked to subjects' empathy.[9],[13] However, few of these have assessed CE and AE separately.[9],[13] Previous literature has demonstrated that empathy correlates with the motivation to help others.[14] No study however addresses the role empathy may play in self-help, a crucial step in the management of alcohol dependence. A link between an alcoholic's empathy and motivation is lacking.

It is imperative to highlight changes in empathy with changes in motivation, over and above the dichotomy of abstinence and dependence.Detailed understanding of empathy, or a lack thereof, and its fate during the natural course of the illness, particularly with each step of the motivation cycle, will prove fruitful in planning better strategies for alcohol dependence. This will, in turn, lead to better handling of its social consequences and reduction in its burden on society and healthcare. The present study was thus formulated, which aimed at comparing CE, AE, and total empathy (TE) between subjects of alcohol dependence and normal controls.

Differences in CE, AE and TE with abstinence and stage of motivation were also assessed. We also correlated CE, AE, and TE with disease-specific variables. Materials and Methods The present study is a cross-sectional observational study done in the outpatient psychiatric department of a tertiary care center.

Ethical clearance was obtained from the institutional ethics committee (IEC/Pharm/RP/102/Feb/2019). The study was conducted over a period of 6 months (March 2019–August 2019) and purposive sampling method was used. Sixty subjects, between the ages of 18–65 years, diagnosed with alcohol dependence as per the International Classification of Diseases-10 criteria were included in the study as cases.

Subjects with comorbid psychiatric and medical disorders (four subjects) and those dependent on more than one substance (six subjects) were excluded. As all the available cases were male, the study was restricted to males. Sixty normal healthy male controls who were not suffering from any medical or psychiatric illness (five subjects excluded) were recruited from the normal population (these were healthy relatives of patients attending our outpatient department).

Subjects were explained about the nature of the study and written informed consent was obtained from them. A semi-structured pro forma was devised to include sociodemographic variables, such as age, marital status, family structure, education, and employment status and disease-specific variables in the cases, such as total duration of illness, number of relapses, number of hospital admissions, and family history of psychiatric illness/substance dependence. Empathy was assessed using the Basic Empathy Scale for Adults for both cases and controls and motivation was assessed in the cases using the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URICA).

The scales were translated into the vernacular languages (Hindi and Marathi) and the translated versions were used. The scales were administered by a single rater in one sitting. The entire interview was completed in 20–30 min.InstrumentsThe Basic Empathy Scale for AdultsIt is a 20-item scale which was developed by Jolliffe and Farrington.[15] Each question is rated on a five point Likert type scale.

We used the two-factor model where nine items assess CE (Items 3, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 19, and 20) and 11 items assess AE (Items 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 15, 17, and 18). The total score gives TE, which can range from 20 (deficit in empathy) to 100 (high level of empathy).The University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URICA)This scale is based on the transtheoretical model of motivation given by Prochaska and DiClemente, which divides the readiness to change temporally into four stages. Precontemplation (PC), contemplation (C), action (A), and maintenance (M).[16] The URICA is a 32-item self-report measure that grades responses on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from one (strong disagreement) to five (strong agreement).

The subscales can be combined arithmetically (C + A + M − PC) to yield a second-order continuous readiness to change score that is used to assess readiness to change at entrance to treatment. Based on this score, the individual is classified into the stage of motivation (precontemplation, contemplation, action, and maintenance)Statistical analysisSPSS 20.0 software was used for carrying out the statistical analysis. (IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 20.0, released 2011, Armonk, NY.

IBM Corp.). Data were expressed as mean (standard deviation) for continuous variables and frequencies and percentages for categorical variables. Comparative analyses were done using unpaired Student's t-test and one-way ANOVA with post hoc Bonferroni's test wherever appropriate.

The correlation was done using Pearson's correlation test and point biserial correlation test for continuous and dichotomous categorical variables, respectively. The effect size was determined by calculating Cohen's d (d) for t-test, partial eta square (ηp2) for ANOVA, and correlation coefficient (r) for Pearson's correlation/point biserial correlation test. P <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

Results A total of 120 subjects consisting of 60 cases and 60 controls who satisfied the inclusion and exclusion criteria were considered for the analysis. The mean age of cases was 40.80 (8.69) years, whereas that of controls was 39.02 (10.12) years. About 80% of the cases and 88% of the controls were married.

Only 58% of the cases and 57% of the controls were educated. Almost 80% of the cases versus 95% of the controls were employed at the time of assessment. Majority of the cases (75%) and controls (83%) belonged to nuclear families.

None of the sociodemographic variables varied significantly across cases and controls. Comparison of empathy between cases and controls using unpaired t-test showed cognitive (t(118) =2.59, P = 0.01), affective (t(118) =2.19, P = 0.03), and total empathy (t(118) =2.39, P = 0.02) to be significantly lower in cases [Table 1]. The analysis showed the difference to be most significant for CE (d = 0.48), followed by TE (d = 0.44), and then AE (d = 0.40), implying that it is CE that is most significantly lowered in men with alcohol dependence.

[Table 2] shows the correlation between empathy and disease-related variables amng the cases using Pearson's correlation/point biserial correlation tests. Number of relapses negatively correlated with all three measures of empathy, most with CE (r = −0.42, P = 0.001), followed by TE (r = −0.39, P = 0.002) and least with AE (r = −0.31, P = 0.016). This means that men with alcohol dependence who are more empathic tend to have lesser relapses.

Having a family history of mental illness/substance use was seen to have a positive correlation with CE (r = 0.43, P = 0.001) and TE (r = 0.30, P = 0.02) but not AE (P = 0.17). As the coefficients of correlation for all the relations were <0.5, the strength of correlations in our sample was mild–moderate.Table 2. Relation of disease related variables with total empathy in casesClick here to viewMotivation and readiness to change was assessed in the cases using the URICA scale, which had a mean score of 8.78 (4.09).

About 50% of the subjects were currently consuming alcohol (30 out of 60) and the remaining were completely abstinent. Comparing empathy scores among those subjects still consuming and those subjects completely abstinent using unpaired t-test [Figure 1] showed that abstinent patients had significantly higher AE (t(58) =2.72, mean difference = 5.10 [95% confidence interval [CI]. 1.34–8.86], P = 0.009) and TE (t(58) =2.88, mean difference = 8.60 [95% CI.

2.63–14.57], P = 0.006) as compared to those still consuming but not CE (t(58) =1.93, mean difference = 2.83 [95% CI. 0.09–5.77], P = 0.058). This difference was most marked in TE (d = 0.77), followed by AE (d = 0.71).

Dividing the cases into their respective stages of motivation showed that 20 out of 60 (33%) subjects were in precontemplation stage, 10 out of 60 (17%) in contemplation stage and 30 out of 60 (50%) in action stage. None were seen to be in maintenance phase. Using one-way ANOVA to assess the difference in empathy across the various stages of motivation [Table 3], it was found that AE (F (2,57) = 5.03, P = 0.01) and TE (F (2, 57) = 4.25, P = 0.02) varied across the motivation cycle but not CE (F (2,57) = 2.26, P = 0.11).

Difference was more significant for affective empathy (ηp2 = 0.15) as compared to total empathy (ηp2 = 0.13), although a small one. In both cases of affective and total empathy, it can be seen that empathy increases gradually with each stage in motivation cycle [Figure 2]. However, using the post hoc Bonferroni test [Table 4] revealed that significant difference in both cases was seen between precontemplation and action stages only (P <.

0.05).Figure 1. Difference in cognitive, affective, and total empathy among dependent and abstinent subjects. Data expressed as mean (standard deviation)Click here to viewFigure 2.

Cognitive, affective, and total empathy in cases across precontemplation, contemplation, and action stages of motivation. Data expressed as mean (standard deviation)Click here to viewTable 4. Comparison of cognitive, affective and total empathy in individual stages of motivation using post hoc Bonferroni testClick here to view Discussion Role of empathy in addictive behaviors is a pivotal one.[17] The present analysis shows that subjects dependent on alcohol lack empathic abilities as compared to healthy controls.

This translates to both cognitive and affective components of empathy. Earlier research appears divided in this aspect. Massey et al.

Elucidated reduction in both CE and AE by behavioral, neuroanatomical, and self-report methods.[18] Impairment in affect processing system in alcohol dependence was cited as the reason behind the so-called “cognitive-affective dissociation of empathy” in alcoholics, which resulted in a changed AE, with relatively intact CE.[9],[17] However, there is enough evidence to suggest the lack of social cognition, emotional cognition, and related cognitive deficits in alcohol-dependent subjects.[19] Cognitive deficits responsible for dampening of CE seen in addictions have been attributed to frontal deficits.[19] In fact, it is a combined deficit which leads to impaired social and interpersonal functioning in alcoholics.[20] Hence, our primary finding is in keeping with this hypothesis.Empathy may relate to various aspects of the psychopathological process.[21] Disorders have also been classified based on which aspect of empathy is deficient – cognitive, affective, or general.[21] On such a spectrum, alcohol dependence should definitely be classified as a general empathic deficit disorder. It is also known that within a disorder, the two components of empathy may show variation, depending upon various factors.[21] Addiction processes may have impulsivity, antisocial personality traits, externalizing behaviors, and internalizing behaviors as a part of their presentations, all factors which effect empathy.[22],[23] Hence, it is likely that difference in empathy could be attributable to these factors, even though it has been shown that empathy operates independent of them to impact the disease process.[18]Abstinence period is associated with several physiological and psychological changes and is a key experience in the life of patients with alcohol use disorder.[24] The present analysis shows that abstinence period is associated with higher empathy than the active phase of illness. It has been demonstrated that empathy correlates significantly with abstinence and retention in treatment.[13],[23] A study has described improvement in empathy, attributable to personality changes with abstinence, in subjects following up for treatment in self-help groups.[13] A causative effect of improvement in empathy due to the 12-step program and abstinence has been hypothesized,[13] and our findings support this.

Empathy is a key factor in motivation to help others and oneself when in distress. This suggests a role for it in motivation to quit and treatment seeking. Yet still, few studies have made this assessment.

Across the motivation cycle, we found that TE and AE were significantly higher for subjects in action phase than for precontemplation and contemplation phases. CE showed no significant changes. Thus, it appears that AE is more amenable to change and instrumental in motivation enhancement.

Treatment modalities for dependence should inculcate methods addressing empathy, especially AE as this would be more beneficial. It is also possible that these patients may innately have higher empathy and hence are motivated to quit alcohol, as has been previously demonstrated.[9]It is clear that in adults who have developed alcohol dependence, deficits in empathic processing remit in recovery and this finding is crucial to optimize long-term outcomes and minimize the likelihood of relapse. Altered empathic abilities have been shown to impair future problem solving in social situations, thus impacting the prognosis of the illness.[25] Similarly, it also hampers treatment seeking in alcoholics.

CE played a greater role in our sample as compared to AE, contrary to what most literature states.[26] This is furthered by the fact that CE and TE correlated with number of relapses and having a family history of mental illness in our subjects, whereas AE correlated with only number of relapses. Subjects with higher empathy had significantly lesser relapses, suggesting a role for empathy, particularly CE in maintaining abstinence, even though it is least likely to change. This relation has been demonstrated by other researchers also.[13],[23] Having a positive family history of mental illness/addictions was associated with higher CE and TE.

Genes have shown to influence development and dynamicity of empathy in healthy individuals and as genetics play a major role in heredity of addictions, levels of empathy may also vary accordingly.[21],[27] As AE did not show this relation, it appears CE and AE may not be “equally heritable.” However, more research in this area is needed.Our study was not without limitations. Factors such as premorbid personality and baseline empathy were not considered. As all cases and controls were males, gender differences could not be assessed.

We did not have any patients in the maintenance phase of motivation and hence this difference could not be assessed. It also might be more prudent to have a prospective study design wherein patients are followed throughout their motivation cycle to derive a more robust relation between empathy and motivation. As our study was a cross-sectional study, it was not possible.To mention a few strengths, our analysis adds to the need for studying CE and AE separately, as they may impact different aspects of the illness and show varied dynamicity over the natural course of alcohol dependence owing to their difference in neural substrates.[28] While many risk factors for alcohol dependence are difficult if not impossible to change,[29] some components of empathy may be modifiable,[13] particularly AE.

Abstinence is associated with an increase in AE and TE and thus empathy may be crucial in propelling an individual along the motivation cycle. Our analysis stands out in being one of the few to establish a relation between stages of motivation and components of empathy in alcohol dependence, which will definitely have further research and therapeutic implications. Conclusions Empathic deficits in alcohol dependence are well established, being more for CE than AE although both being affected.

Even though psychotherapeutic approaches have hitherto targeted therapist's empathy,[30] we suggest that a detailed understanding of patient's empathy is equally crucial in the management. Increment in AE and TE is seen with abstinence and improvement in subject's motivation. Relapses are lesser in individuals with higher empathy and it is possible that those who relapse develop low empathy.

The present analysis is associational and causality inference should be done with caution. Modalities of treatment which focus on empathy and its subsequent advancement, such as brief intervention and self-help groups, have met with ample success in clinical practice.[13],[31] Adding to existing factors that have proved successful for abstinence,[32] focusing on improving empathy at specific points in the motivation cycle (contemplation to action) may motivate individuals better to stay in treatment and reduce further relapses.Financial support and sponsorshipNil.Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest. References 1.Caetano R, Cunradi C.

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J Consult Clin Psychol 2015;83:232-7. Correspondence Address:Hrishikesh Bipin Nachane63, Sharmishtha, Tarangan, Thane West, Thane - 400 606, Maharashtra IndiaSource of Support. None, Conflict of Interest.

NoneDOI. 10.4103/indianjpsychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_1101_2 Figures [Figure 1], [Figure 2] Tables [Table 1], [Table 2], [Table 3], [Table 4].